SENAT
Report n° 230 (2006-2007) by M. Christian GAUDIN, Senator (for the parliament office for the evaluation of scientific and technological choices)
Disponible au format Acrobat (12 Moctets)
VI. FRANCE'S PRESENCE IN THE POLAR REGIONS
France has long been present in the polar regions. French sailors were among the regions' first explorers, including Bouvet and Kerguelen in the 18 th century, Dumont d'Urville in the 19th century and Charcot in the 20 th century, to cite only the most famous names. The French were therefore among the first to come into contact with the Arctic peoples, after Paul-Émile Victor and Jean Malaurie.
With the age of exploration and first discoveries over, France must establish a permanent, scientific presence in the polar regions to carry out research in these extreme environments.
In this regard, the French presence can be seen to be very unequal at the two poles, necessitating a certain re-equilibrium.
A. DEVELOPING FRANCE'S PRESENCE IN THE ARCTIC, STRENGTHENING ITS PRESENCE IN ANTARCTICA
For essentially historic and territorial reasons, France's presence is very different at our planet's two poles.
1. Developing France's Arctic presence
France is little present in the Arctic.
This is to be explained by the region's geopolitical situation. Ever since its abandonment of Canada, France has never claimed sovereignty over any Arctic territory. However, all the territory located above the polar circle is today under the control of a small number of nations: the United States, Canada, Iceland, Norway, Sweden, Finland and Russia. Therefore, it is not possible to set up a scientific base there, without a prior international agreement. Only a few nations benefit from an exception to this rule; for example, Germany has been able to retain the Arctic base it was conceded by Russia during the Cold War.
The establishment of scientific stations by third-party nations is only possible in the Svalbard Archipelago , which was partially internationalized by the Treaty of Paris in the 1920s. While this treaty grants Norway the right to act as the islands' sovereign power, it also allows the other signatory nations to freely set themselves up there and to develop scientific and economic activities exempt from Norwegian taxation.
France is present in Svalbard via its scientific bases of Charles Rabot , in the village of Ny-Ålisund, and Jean Corbel (named after the scientist who led to the first French presence starting in 1963), 6 km to the southeast.
Norway installed the first permanent base in 1968, which then served to welcome a veritable international research village.
Following a rapid development centered around the personality of Jean Corbel, French activity greatly declined before again progressively increasing starting in 1974. In 1982, an Arctic research group was created, which later became part of the IFRTP, today's IPEV.
The Charles Rabot base is a two-storey building with a surface area of 250 m 2 in the village, while the Jean Corbel base is a summertime-only installation capable of welcoming some ten persons. The Corbel base is a "clean" station, whose energy is entirely furnished by renewable, nonpolluting sources to allow it to specialize in delicate chemical studies of the atmosphere.
France also benefits from the support of other countries in carrying out certain research, including in the United States (Alaska), Canada, Greenland and Sweden (Kiruna). All told, France carries out some twenty research programmes in the Arctic.
This presence is rather small in comparison to that of other countries such as Germany, let alone the United States and Russia.
This weakness is detrimental for three main reasons:
- A great many research areas carried out at one pole have their counterpart at the other. This is particularly true with regard to glaciology, but it is also the case for the fields of oceanography and biology. Indeed, a few species of bird, such as the Wilson Petrel, migrate every year from the sub-Antarctic islands to Alaska and Greenland.
- For Europe, the main political and economic issues linked to climate change are located in the Arctic: the evolution of the Gulf Stream; the weakening of the ice shelf; the moving fish stocks; the extinction of species; the opening up of new oil and gas exploration areas; new communication routes; and threats to the peoples of the Far North.
- The equilibrium of our partnerships, which are founded on an exchange of means and knowledge, would justify our greater presence - comparable to that of our principal partners - in the Far North, as a natural extension of our successes in the Antarctic.
Despite the scientific and political interest in pursuing such a development, your rapporteur must here point out the budgetary and human constraints. Indeed, IPEV is currently incapable of funding a greater French presence, with an ever-greater portion of its means being absorbed by the chartering of the Marion Dufresne . What's more, in human terms, the interested research teams also lack recruits to develop - as far as is possible and desirable - new studies.
Nevertheless, we will have to strengthen our presence if we want to play a permanent driving role in polar research and if we want to give substance to our participation in the Arctic Council, the political body comprised of those countries bordering the Arctic.
The Arctic Council was created in 1996. It gathers together the eight nations bordering the Arctic: Canada, Denmark, the United States, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Sweden and Russia. Since 2000, five other countries act as observers: Germany, France, Great Britain, the Netherlands and Poland; they were joined by Spain in 2006. Some fifteen NGOs and international organizations, as well as six associations of northern peoples also participate as observers. Its objective is to protect the Arctic environment and promote better living conditions for the indigenous peoples.
Our country would like to participate more fully in this organization and encourages the creation of a new status, that of "associated member", which would allow it to fully participate in the workgroups. There are six such workgroups:
- Arctic Council Action Plan (ACAP) - the elimination of pollutants in the Arctic (dioxin, mercury, pesticides);
- Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme (AMAP) - the identification and evaluation of pollution problems (oil and gas activities and acid precursors);
- Conservation of Arctic Flora and Fauna (CAFF) - biodiversity conservation and the use of living resources;
- Protection of the Arctic Marine Environment (PAME) - protection against terrestrial and maritime activities, in particular evaluating the impact of increased sea traffic;
- Emergency, Prevention, Preparedness and Responses (EPRS) - the prevention of pollution, control measures for urgent environmental situations in the Arctic;
- Sustainable Development Working Group (SDWG) - the connection between pollution and the health of the indigenous peoples.
Your rapporteur approves of this political orientation, which is in accordance with our diplomatic, economic and scientific interests.
2. Strengthening our presence in the southern regions
As opposed to the situation in the Arctic, France benefits from desirable positions in the Antarctic and Antarctic Ocean.
Indeed, for reasons that are also historic, France controls several islands and archipelagos: the Kerguelens, Crozet, Saint-Paul and Amsterdam.
It also claims a portion of the Antarctic continent: Adélie Land.
Very few countries can boast such possessions. Only the islands and bases of Great Britain, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa are comparable in certain respects.
For the past fifty years, France has established scientific bases on each of these territories, carrying out observation activities that are world famous in both the life and earth and astronomy sciences.
(Source: IPEV)
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The French sub-Antarctic bases and the Marion Dufresne: - Kerguelen - The Port-aux-Français base - 49°S-70°E The Kerguelen Archipelago is the largest French sub-Antarctic archipelago, with a surface area of 7,215 km 2 , comparable to that of Corsica. The main island is La Grande Terre, on which Mont Ross rises to 1,850 m. Rainfall in the islands is heavy and there are violent winds. The first permanent installation was set up in 1949 around the meteorological station. Today, all of the installations cover a total surface area of 9,000 m 2 , accommodating more than one hundred persons in the summer and 60 persons in the winter. The CNES has been present there since 1994, with a satellite-monitoring station. - Crozet - The Alfred-Faure base - 46°S-51°E The Crozet Archipelago is made up of two groups of islands some 100 km apart. The main island of La Possession has a surface area of 140 km 2 . The Alfred-Faure base was installed there in 1964. It accommodates 15 persons in the winter and some thirty persons in the summer. Rainfall there is very heavy (2.5 m/year). - Amsterdam - Saint-Paul - The Martin-de-Viviès base - 37°S-77°E Amsterdam Island has a surface area of 58 km 2 . The Martin-de-Viviès base was installed there in 1950. It allows for the wintering of some fifteen persons. - The Marion Dufresne II: The Marion Dufresne is a ship that makes the rounds of the austral districts four times a year. During the rest of the year, it is used for scientific missions. It is 120 m long, 20 m wide and has a displacement of 10,380 tons. It was built in 1995. It belongs to the TAAF and is commissioned by CMA-CGM. This ship is all of the following: . A passenger ship - 110 passengers - scientists and tourists; . A cargo ship, with a cargo area of 4,600 m 3 (2,500 t) and 5 cranes, including two 25-ton cranes; . An oil tanker used to supply the bases; . A heliport; . A research vessel with 650 m 2 of laboratory space, a lateral coring apparatus capable of extracting the world's longest sedimentary samples (65 m), and a multi-beam sounder. While suitable for sailing in the Antarctic Ocean, the ship is not equipped to sail through ice. Therefore, it cannot access Antarctica, except under exceptional circumstances. Its zone of logistical action is strictly limited to the islands. As a research vessel, it is equipped with tools for the automatic collection of data during its repetitive annual routes; it is also used for a number of scientific missions in the southern seas. But this austral scientific activity is very marginal in the field of oceanography. |
In addition, our country, in cooperation with Italy, is only one of three nations with a permanent base in the Antarctic interior. The other countries are the United States, with its South Pole base, and Russia, with its Vostok base. All of the other stations located in the continent's interior are summer installations, which only function a few months during the year.
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The French bases in Antarctica: Adélie Land forms a triangular sector of 432,000 km 2 between the 136 th and 142 nd meridians of east longitude. Its summit is the geographic South Pole and its base the 350 km of coast between the two meridians. - The Dumont d'Urville base in Adélie Land - 66°S-140°E The Dumont d'Urville base is located on Ile des Petrels in the Pointe Géologie Archipelago, 5 km from the Antarctic continent. The French have been permanently installed on the island since 1956. It was built during the International Geophysical Year in the territory claimed by France and near the magnetic pole, which is today located in the ocean off the Antarctic coast. The base's living conditions aren't very comfortable due to the age of its buildings and the site's violent katabatic winds. The buildings cover a total area of 5,000 m 2 . Some thirty persons can winter there. During the austral summer from November to March, some one hundred persons can operate at the station. An annexe was built on the continent at Cap André Prud'homme. It is the starting point of annual three treks allowing for the transport of freight to Concordia (a minimum of 350 t per year). This same trek allowed for the transportation of the 3,800 t necessary for the construction of Concordia. - The Concordia base - Dome C - 76°S-123°E The Concordia base is the fruit of a glaciological research activity that began in 1974 under the instigation of Claude Lorius. The construction project for a permanent base was finalized by the Franco-Italian agreement between IPEV and PNRA (National Programme for Antarctic Research) signed 9 March 1993. It is the third permanent base in the Antarctic interior. It is located more than 1,000 km from the coast at an altitude of 3,233 m. The nearest Antarctic base is Vostok, 560 km away. It consists mainly of two three-storey cylindrical buildings built on the ice. Its total surface area is 1,500 m 2 . It can accommodate some 15 persons, including 9 scientists, for a 9-month wintering period, and 30 persons during the summer. The site's climatic conditions are extreme: -51°C on average (record: -84°C), but with very little wind and rainfall (less than 10 cm). Besides the tri-annual treks, Concordia is accessible via small Twin Otter planes, carrying up to 1 ton of cargo each. These planes are essentially used to transport people. Some 40 flights are made each year. |
This gives an idea of our country's privileged, well-affirmed position.
It is necessarily very costly to maintain our presence in these far-off lands, due to our having to provide access to these bases, maintain their equipment and infrastructure, and take advantage of them through the development of research activities. It is therefore subject to the permanent risk of a loss of interest and disengagement on the part of metropolitan France, where it can be difficult to be fully appreciate the sites' isolation and harsh climate.
Crozet Island is 2,850 km from Réunion and the islands of Amsterdam and St-Paul 2,880 km away. The Kerguelen Islands are even more isolated, because they lie 1,420 km from Crozet and 1,480 km from St.-Paul. The Dumont d'Urville station is located 2,700 km from the closest port, that of Hobart in Tasmania. Concordia is 1,100 km from the Antarctic coast and the bases of DDU and Casey (Australia) and Mario Zuchelli (Italy, 1,200 km).
One must also consider the climate which for most of the year makes it extremely difficult or even impossible to visit these stations due to the cold, wind and violent seas. Finally, none of these bases have a runway allowing for the landing of large transport and long-haul planes.
Therefore, it hardly seems possible to cooperate with another partner for the logistic service of these islands. In Antarctica, the situation is somewhat different, given the cooperation with Italy, but it is also necessarily complex due to the geographic isolation of our bases.
In addition to these costs that it would be difficult to reduce, there is the cost of maintaining the bases themselves, which take a real pounding from the climate. In Antarctica, where the wintering teams are left without any means of assistance during several months, security cannot be neglected.
Finally, in addition to this intangible data for this part of the world, it must also be added that, as is also the case for the Arctic, international interest in Antarctica is growing. More and more countries would like to set themselves up there, on a temporary or permanent basis.
For instance, China would like to install a permanent base at the least accessible and highest site on the Antarctic continent: Dome Argus, at an altitude of 4,083 m.
The isolation of the French bases means that our country is little confronted with this phenomenon in its zone, but this trend is quite marked on the Peninsula and even in that part of Antarctica close to South Africa. In the sub-Antarctic zone, it is clear that several countries would be immediately interested in our bases if we were to no longer use them.
More generally, France must be mindful - by strengthening its already-acquired positions - of remaining in the forefront of the Antarctic nations , while, at the same time, a greater number of nations is active in the region.
Your rapporteur therefore recommends strengthening the French position in the Antarctic Ocean and on the continent, and pursuing the concomitant development of our Arctic activities in cooperation with our partners, thereby pursuing a certain re-equilibrium.
B. IPEV (THE FRENCH PAUL-ÉMILE VICTOR INSTITUTE), AN AGENCY OF MEANS
IPEV was set up as a GIP (public interest group) following the signing of its constitutive contract on 2 April 1992.
The objective of this new institute was to increase the visibility and coherency of the French presence in the polar regions. Indeed, IPEV took over the management of the French infrastructures in Adélie Land, previously placed under the authority of the EPF (French Polar Expeditions, the non-profit making organization created by Paul-Émile Victor). It also took over the research activities in the TAAF, which were previously carried out by the research programme for the Antarctic Territories. At this time, the Institute also expressed its desire to successfully set up the continental station on Dome C and took over the oceanographic missions.
The GIP was extended for twelve years, until 2014 , by the ministerial order of 8 December 2001, which came into effect on 8 January 2002.
Let us now discuss the naming of the Institute. It dropped its original name, Institut français pour la recherche et la technologie polaires - Expéditions Paul-Émile Victor (the French Institute for Polar Research and Technology - Paul-Émile Victor Expeditions) - for its current name, Institut polaire français - Paul-Émile Victor (Paul-Émile Victor French Polar Institute). This simpler name marks the Institute's evolution and progressively increased autonomy. The Institute's mission is no longer strictly limited to the TAAF and Antarctica. The Institute also distances itself from the era of "expeditions", carried out under the direction of the charismatic Paul-Émile Victor.
The success of IPEV led to the renewal of its GIP status , as is underlined in its preamble: "Considering the fact that, since its creation, the group has managed to carry out logistical operations in the polar and sub-polar zones benefiting research programmes leading to major scientific breakthroughs of great international influence .
"Considering the interest of the group's renewal, in so far as it guarantees an increased visibility for the polar research and technology programmes carried out by France, as well as an improved monitoring of the means allocated to these programmes."
IPEV defines itself as a national agency of means and competences serving research in the polar environments of the Arctic and Antarctic, whose isolation and climate necessitate suitable technological sophistication. Therefore, it is not a research body.
Its objective is defined by Article 2 of the constitutive convention:
. It operates in a specific geographical zone: the polar regions of the Arctic and Antarctic, and the sub-Arctic and sub-Antarctic zones.
. Its role is to:
"coordinate, support and implement - in its role as an agency of means - national/international, scientific and technological programmes, and to select and support scientific and technological projects;
"organize and run scientific expeditions" (recruit scientific and technical personnel; charter ships to carry personnel and materials to the sites; general organization of the missions, from metropolitan France to the polar regions);
"participate in the international dialogue on science and logistics in the polar regions, by maintaining permanent relations with its foreign counterparts;
"encourage the development of scientific and technological knowledge and arouse public interest in these regions;
"assemble and manage an open documentation for these domains;
"set up and ensure the proper functioning of research observatories;
"also, to carry out oceanographic programmes via ships placed under its control;
"It helps develop European cooperation in its fields of competence."
It therefore provides the scientific bases operating in these regions with the following services: construction; management and maintenance of bases and buildings; acquisition and maintenance of scientific equipment.
The GIP gathers together all the main actors involved in polar research. Since the renewal and the withdrawal of the Overseas Ministry and the adhesion of both the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the CEA (Commission on Atomic Energy), IPEV includes - in addition to the latter two bodies - the following actors:
. The Ministry of Research,
. The TAAF,
. The CNRS,
. The CNES,
. Météo-France,
. Ifremer,
. The French polar expeditions.
Their rights and obligations are organized in the following manner:
. The Ministry of Research - 49%
. The CNRS - 36%
. The CEA - 5%
. Ifremer - 5%
. The others: 1% each, in particular for the TAAF.
The financial contributions made to the Institute are not exactly proportional to the above shares.
The administrative council (Article 17) is made up of members appointed by the GIP parties, in addition to those serving a consultative role appointed by the Ministry of the Budget, the Ministry of the Environment and the Overseas Ministry, as well as the government commissioner appointed by the Ministry of Research, the State Regulator, the IPEV director and two qualified personalities.
The administrators serve four-year terms. This position is non-remunerated and carried out on an individual basis.
One of the two exterior personalities - today, Jean Jouzel - is appointed as president of the administrative council.
The make-up of the administrative council as of 31 December 2005:
- Jean-Paul MONTAGNER, the Ministry of Research,
- Christian THIMONIER, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs,
- Sylvie JOUSSAUME, the CNRS,
- Jean-Yves PERROT, Ifremer,
- Yves CARISTAN, the CEA,
- Geneviève DEBOUZY, the CNES,
- Jean-Pierre MAC VEIGH, Météo France,
- Michel CHAMPON, the TAAF,
- Jacques SOYER, the EPF.
Participants with a consultative role:
- Jean-Pierre GUARDIOLA, the Overseas Ministry,
- Laurence PETITGUILLAUME, the Ministry of the Environment,
- Florence GOURGEON, the Ministry of the Budget,
- Philippe IMBERT, Government Commissioner,
- Jean-Claude MOREL, State Regulator,
- Jean JOUZEL, President,
- Jacques DESCUSSE, exterior personality,
- Gérard JUGIE, Institut Director.
The administrative council meets at least twice a year. It is responsible for making all important decisions concerning the Institute.
In particular, it appoints the director to a 4-year, renewable term. The director ensures the proper functioning of the Institute, under the authority of the administrative council. He/she has the power of committing the Institute to third parties (Article 18).
The Institute also has a Council on Scientific and Technological Programmes for the Poles (Article 19).
This council plays a very important role in the carrying out of research, because it puts forward opinions and recommendations on:
. the implementation of scientific programmes and the ocean and land-based projects entrusted to the Institute;
. the Institute's scientific and technical actions,
. the Institute's policy of scientific and logistical cooperation at the international level.
It also has the power of proposing new research areas.
In addition, it must be kept informed of the means brought into play for the processing of the scientific data and ensuring the diffusion of the research results.
Finally, it makes sure that the organizations proposing new programmes have the sufficient means, in terms of equipment and personnel, to successfully carry out in metropolitan France - with the Institute's support, if need be - the preparation, interpretation and publication of the scientific and technological data collected.
It is made up of 16 members organized in the following manner:
. The president of the polar environment committee,
. Five members appointed by the CNRS, Ifremer, Météo-France, the CNES and the CEA,
. Ten nominated by the Ministry of Research, including five foreign nominees.
They serve four-year terms that can be renewed one time and are non-remunerated.
Make-up of the Council on Scientific and Technological Programmes:
- Edouard BARD, President, Collège de France,
- Eric BRUN, Météo France,
- Dorthe DAHL-JENSEN, University of Copenhagen,
- Patrick DUNCAN, the CNRS-CEBC,
- Thérèse ENCRENAZ, the CNRS-Paris Observatory,
- Françoise GAILL, the CNRS-University of Paris VI,
- François GUYOT, the CNRS-University of Paris VI,
- Jeronimo LOPEZ, the Autonomous University of Madrid,
- Valérie MASSON-LAMOTTE, the CNRS-CEA,
- Jean-Robert PETIT, the CNRS-University of Grenoble I,
- Jason PHIPPS MORGAN, Geomar Forschungszentrum,
- Victor SMETACEK, the Alfred Wegener Institute,
- Jorn THIEDE, the Alfred Wegener Institute,
- Paul TREGUER, Vice-President, the CNRS-UBO-IUEM,
- Nigel G. YOCCOZ, the Norwegian Nature Institute,
- Alain PUGET, President of the Regional Ethics Committee on Animal Testing of the CNRS-Midi Pyrénées.
Finally, the articles touch upon issues relative to patents and the use of results (Article 21). The measures are not very detailed, but do mention that work carried out within the framework of the Institute or with outside partners must be the subject of conventions specifying the ownership of the results and that specific contracts will be concluded allowing for the use of this data.